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GENDER PATTERNS IN FRIENDSHIPS

GENDER PATTERNS IN FRIENDSHIPS 

This is a repost of the studies of Rannveig Traustadottir

wp - genders by ~tekkorian on deviantART

wp – genders by ~tekkorian on deviantART

Many studies have documented the differences in friendship among men and friendship among women. One of these authors goes so far as to claim that, “there is no social factor more important than that of sex in leading to friendship variations”. Gender seems to be a main organizer of friendships, and most studies identify three major patterns: (1) friendship between women, (2) friendship between men, and (3) cross-gender friendship. In this article I will briefly review this literature and will also look at friendships between people with and without disabilities.

2

Women’s Friendships

Women typically describe their friendships in terms of closeness and emotional attachment. What characterizes friendships between women is the willingness to share important feelings, thoughts, experiences, and support. Women devote a good deal of time and intensity of involvement to friends. Friendships between women, more so than between men, are broad and less likely to be segmented.

That is, women usually make a deep commitment to their female friends and their friendships usually cover a broad spectrum, while men’s friendships tend to be segmented and centered around particular activities.

 


 

History does not celebrate female friendships, and there is a long standing myth that the greatest friendships have been between men. The male friendship is usually portrayed as the most unselfish and perhaps the highest form of human relationship, while women’s friendships have been devalued and seen as frivolous and superficial. A group of women friends is not seen as a team of colleagues, but as the “girls” trooping off to gossip, exchange recipes, and talk about trivia of fashion, cooking, or dieting over tea. Studies indicate that many of these stereotypes about women’s friendships still exist.

1

Men’s Friendships

The great friendships recorded in history have been between men, and friendships among men have often been romanticized and idealized. Men’s friendships have typically been described in terms of bravery and physical sacrifice in providing assistance to others. Hardly ever do these historical accounts celebrate interpersonal relationships characterized by closeness and compassion for other men. Bell claims that, “This has been so because masculine values have made those kinds of feelings inappropriate and highly suspect–they were unmanly”. Despite this historical romanticization of the male friendship, researchers have found that men have significantly fewer friends than women, especially close friendships or best friends. Although the majority of men may not have close friends they do not conduct their lives in isolation. Block (1980) found that most of the men in his study had a variety of same-sex relationships. These include what Block calls “activity friends,” such as a weekly tennis partner or drinking buddies; “convenience friends” where the relationship is based on the exchange of favors; and “mentor friends” typically between a younger and an older man.

While women’s friendships are usually defined as self-revealing, accepting, and intimate, men usually shy away from intimacy and closeness. Authors identify at least three barriers to close friendships among men: competition between men, traditional masculine stereotypes about “real men,” and fear of homosexuality.

In a discussion of gender differences in friendship, Sherrod (1989), points out that although men rate their friendship as less intimate than do women, at least in terms of self-disclosure and emotional expressiveness, men’s friendships nevertheless serve to buffer stress and reduce depression in the same way that women’s friendships do. Sherrod also reports that when men do achieve a high level of intimacy with other men, they usually follow a different path than women, one that emphasizes activities and companionship over self-disclosure and emotional expressiveness.

1

Friendships Between Men and Women

Studies indicate that male-female friendships are less common than same-gender friendships. This is especially true for married people or couples, where friendships across the gender line are much less common than among single people. Most studies indicate that this is primarily due to possessiveness and jealousy that often characterizes sexual relationships and coupled life.

In his study, Bell (1981) discusses what he describes as an emerging “new pattern” in cross-gender friendship: “Men turn more to women for close relationships, and relationships with other men are less stressed as the only ‘real’ friendships” found similar trends. Some of the men in her study describe how a friendship with a woman provides them with nurturance and intimacy, that generally is not available in their friendships with other men. The women in Rubin’s study share this view and most of them agree that in their friendships with men, they are the ones who listen and nurture. The vast majority of women, however, report that their friendships with men are less intimate than their relationships with other women. For their most intimate friendships, women turn to each other.

Gender Patterns in Friendships Between People With and Without Disabilities

There are at least two reasons why friendships between people with and without disabilities are seen as important for the person with the disability. First, it is generally assumed that such relationships will serve as the basis for some of the social, emotional, and practical support people with disabilities need in order to become truly integrated into the fabric of everyday community life. Second, many people regard social relationships with ordinary community members as the measure, or even the ultimate goal, of people’s integration into community life.

As with friendships in the general population, friendships between people with and without disabilities are also organized by gender relations, but instead of three major gender patterns, one pattern seems to be most common: friendship between nondisabled women and people (men and women) with disabilities. Friendship patterns that include nondisabled men seem to be less common.

Women and People with Disabilities

Although there are no conclusive studies available to determine the gender patterns in friendships between people with and without disabilities, the literature indicates strongly that women tend to be overrepresented as friends of people with disabilities. The expectation that friends of people with disabilities will provide practical, emotional, and social support is probably one reason why women are more inclined to enter such friendships than men. The differences in men’s and women’s orientation toward friendships in general indicate that women would be more likely than men to provide such support. Women approach friendships in a way that is characterized by acceptance, intimacy, and support. Further, women have traditionally been assigned the role of helper, nurturer, and caretaker. Therefore, establishing a friendship with a person with a disability falls within the realm of women’s traditional roles, as well as within the tradition of female friendships.

As part of a qualitative study of women in caring roles, I interviewed and observed nondisabled women in friendships with people with disabilities. The women in this study usually highlighted the emotional aspects when they described their friendships with both women and men with disabilities. These friendships were often characterized by an unusual amount of support provided by the nondisabled women, and the considerable amount of work it usually requires to spend time with their friends. These characteristics set these friendships apart from friendships in the general population, where friendships are likely to have a closer resemblance to the culturally dominant ideal of friendship as a reciprocal relation between equals.

Within friendships in general, reciprocity is viewed as a balance of contribution and benefit; both parties feel that their contribution to the relationship is fairly balanced by what they get out of it. In their account of friendships between women with disabilities and non-disabled women, including the friendship between themselves, Fisher and Galler (1988) write:

Although this marketplace image of social life has been criticized on the grounds that the intimate feelings shared by friends transcend such trade-offs, some desire for reciprocity seems to have played a part in the friendships of all the women we spoke to–as well as in our own.

The friends in my study also strive for some level of reciprocity in their friendships. Creating such a balance, however, is difficult for people with severe disabilities who need a significant amount of support from their friends.

Most of the women in this study have made a broad commitment to their friends with disabilities. Most of their friends have few means to reciprocate the support other than love, affection, intimacy, and emotional comfort. Because these are qualities women seek and value in their friendships, women will be more likely than men to recognize these as important contributions, which makes it easier, at least for some people with disabilities, to create a balanced friendship with women.

Men and People With Disabilities

Nondisabled men seem to be less likely than their female counterparts to establish friendships with people with disabilities. There are, of course, nondisabled men who have close friendships with people with disabilities (Perske, 1988), but these seem to be the exception rather than the rule. In my study, I found a number of barriers that hinder the establishment of friendships between nondisabled men and people with disabilities, especially the expectation that nondisabled friends will provide emotional support or personal care to their friends with disabilities.Unlike women, men usually have little practice in providing such tending-type assistance. In addition, the taboos around emotional and physical closeness within male friendships can make it difficult for men to provide such assistance to their male friends with disabilities. The fear many heterosexual men have of being thought of as homosexual may also be at work here, as may the fear of being suspected of sexual abuse of a woman friend with disabilities.

During participant observations in human service organizations I encountered a small number of nondisabled men who have established friendships with people with disabilities. The overwhelming majority of these friendships are between men. Like with the women, most of the nondisabled men met their friends through involvement in the field of disabilities. In most instances the nondisabled man is a current or former staff member in service programs serving their friend with the disability.

A large proportion of these nondisabled male friends are nontraditional in some sense, and some of them openly challenge the conventional masculinity. For example, more than half of these men are homosexual, and one of the heterosexual men is very active in the peace movement and fights against militarism and other forms of traditional masculinity. Part of this study took place during the “Desert Storm” operation in the Persian Gulf, and this man was among the leaders in the opposition against this military operation in his community.

Most of the friendships between men with and without disabilities have characteristics similar to friendships between men in the general population. These are typically friendships that center around particular activities, like going to sports events. If the man provides assistance to the friend with the disability, the support is most often of practical nature. The most common support is to provide the friend with transportation to certain events such as church or to sports events. These friendships are usually not broad based or characterized by emotional intimacy. Sometimes a woman introduces the men to each other, and women are often instrumental in keeping the relationship going.

Summary

Gender is a major organizer of friendship, both in the general population and in friendship between people with and without disabilities. However, when the gender patterns are compared it becomes apparent that friendship between people with and without disabilities do not follow normative friendship patterns. Instead of the culturally normative pattern where friendships are mostly confined within gender, people with disabilities (males as well as females) who do have friends, tend to have nondisabled women friends.

I have argued that the social organization of friendships between people with and without disabilities is highly gendered, in such a way that women will be more likely, than men, to establish such friendships. When women establish a friendship with a person with a disability they are following a long tradition of women’s relationships characterized by caring and nurturance. By the same token, the social construction of friendships between people with and without disabilities creates a number of barriers for nondisabled men in establishing such friendships.


 To facilitate the reading we took the references number seen below. Please refer to the original article for full article.

References

Bell, R. R. (1981). Worlds of friendships. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

Block, J. D. (1980). Friendship: How to give it, how to get it. NewYork: Collier Books.

Fasteau, M. .F. (1991). Friendships among men. In E. Ashton-Jones& G. A. Olson (Eds.) The gender reader. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Fisher, B. & Galler, R. (1988). Friendship and fairness: Howdisability affects friendship between women. In M. Fine & A. Asch (Eds.) Women with disabilities: Essays in psychology, culture, and politics. Pp. 172-194. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

Gouldner, H. & Strong, M. S. (1987). Speaking of friendship:Middle-class women and their friends. New York: Greenwood Press.

Hutchison, P. (1990). Making friends: Developing relationships between people with a disability and other members of the community. Ontario: G. Allan Roeher Institute.

Kishi, G. S. (1988). Long term effects of different amounts of social contact between peers with and without severe disabilities: Outcomes of school integration efforts in Hawaii. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. Syracuse University.

Knoll, J. & Ford, A. (1987). Beyond caregiving: A reconceptualization of the role of the residential service provider. In S. J. Taylor, D. Biklen, J. Knoll, Community integration for people with severe disabilities, pp. 129-146. New York: Teacher College Press.

Krauss,M.W., Seltzer, M. M., & Goodman, S. (1992). Social support networks of adults with mental retardation who live at home. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 96(4), 432-441.

Lenz, E. & Myerhoff, B. (1985). The feminization of America. Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher.

McGill, M. E. (1985). The McGill report on male intimacy. NewYork: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Miller, S. (1983). Men and friendship. Boston: Houghton MifflinCompany.

Peck, C.A., Donaldsson, J., & Pezzoli, M. (1990). Some benefits nonhandicapped adolescents perceive for themselves from their social relationships with peers who have severe handicaps. The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 15(4), 241-249.

Perske, T. (1988a). Circles of friends. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press.

Pogrebin, L. C. (1987). Among friends: Who we like, why we like them, and what we do with them. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Rubin, L. B. (1985). Just friends: The role of friendship in our lives. New York: Harper and Row.

Sherrod, D. (1989). The influence of gender on same-sex friendships, In C. Hendrick (Ed.) Close relationships, pp. 164-186. Newburry Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Smith, D. W. (1983). The friendless American male. Ventura, CA:Regal Books.

Stein, P.J. (1986). Men and their friendships. In R.A. Lewis & R.E. Salt (Eds.) Men in families, pp. 261-269. Newburry Park, CA: Sage.

Voeltz, L. M. (1980). Children’s attitudes toward handicapped peers. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 84(5), 455-464.

Voeltz, L. M. (1982). Effects of structured interactions with severely handicapped peers on children’s attitudes. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 86(4) 380-390.

Parts of this article will appear in Friendships and Community Connections Between Persons With and Without Disabilities, edited by Angela N. Amado, to be published by Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.


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Google Doodle: Robert Moog (5 Tips out of 5- Awesome)

 

Moog Google Doodle

Robert Moog’s 78 Birthday

23 May 2012

“Google’s commemorative Doodles have become increasingly complex as the company grows, and a new one celebrating what would have been the 78th birthday of electronic music pioneer Robert Moog is one of the best yet. The doodle, which has already gone live in some places, is a recreation of the Moog synthesizer that visitors can actually play. Like the Les Paul Doodle, you can record your songs, but Google’s added a couple of sharing tools, so you can post music directly to Plus or send a link. There’s also a full set of knobs for adjusting the waveform, volume, and just about everything else you’d find on a real Moog.” Adi Robertson for Verve.com

Although musical synthesisers already existed, Moog transformed pop music during the 1960s by producing and marketing a small keyboard synth which could be used with relative ease.

Bands including the Beatles and the Doors used the Moog synthesiser, while others later became fans of the Minimoog, a stripped-down version which followed it in the 1970s.

The New Yorker, who would have turned 78 on Wednesday, had been encouraged to dabble in electronics from an early age by his father and built his first electronic instrument, a theremin, at the age of 14

 

Robert Moog was born in 1934 in New York City. When he was a child, his mother encouraged him to study music, so he learned to play the piano. Meanwhile, he spent a great deal of time with his father as well, with whom he liked to tinker with electronics. By the time Moog had reached his teenage years, these two interests had converged and building simple novelty electronic musical instruments had become a hobby.

In 1949, Moog built his first theremin from the instructions he found in a magazine. He was fascinated with the theatrical and mysterious sounds the instrument, invented by Russian inventor Leon Theremin in the 1920s, could create. The theremin is played by waving your hands in the vicinity of two metal rods, controlling pitch and volume, that are attached to a nondescript wooden cabinet. It is very large and difficult to play, thus its popularity faded rather quickly.

Moog, however, maintained his interest in the theremin throughout his college years. After he received a BS in physics from Queens College and a BS in electrical engineering from Columbia University, Moog pursued a doctoral degree in engineering physics at Cornell University. While he was still a student, Moog founded the R.A. Moog Company as a part-time business to design and build electronic musical instruments. He also published an article for the January, 1961 issue of the magazine ‘Electronics World.’ After the issue was published, Moog sold 1,000 theremin kits out of his three-room apartment.

Eventually Moog began producing instruments of his own design. After toying with the idea of a portable guitar amplifier, Moog turned to the synthesizer. During a convention in 1963, Moog was introduced to the idea of building new circuits that would be capable of producing sound. In 1964 he was invited to exhibit his circuits at the Audio Engineering Society Convention. Shortly afterwards Moog completed his PhD and began to manufacture electronic music synthesizers, and it was not long before synthesizers went from being computers to instruments that could be found in any music store.

Moog designed his first synthesizers in collaboration with the composers Herbert A. Deutsch, and Walter Carlos. Significantly, Moog’s was the first synthesizer to use attack-decay-sustain-release (ADSR) envelopes, set with four different knobs, which control the qualities of a sound’s onset, intensity and fade. Like many of his designs, Moog’s envelope generators became a basic component of later synthesizers.

 

The sound was monophonic — one note at a time — but that was enough, since studio recording techniques could create whole orchestras from single notes by the late 1960s. Moog’s synthesizer also boasted the voltage-controlled lowpass filter that came to be known as the Moog filter, capable of making a variety of full horn, string and vocal timbres. The filter was patented in 1968.

 

After the success of Carlos’s album “Switched on Bach,” entirely recorded using Moog synthesizers, Moog’s instruments leapt into commercial popular music. In 1971, the name of his company was changed to Moog Music, Inc., and in 1973 the company became a division of Norlin Music, Inc. Moog served as president of Moog Music until 1977. The Micromoog was the last synthesizer created by Moog to bear his name. After Norlin took over his company, including synthesizer design, Moog spent the rest of his days at the company designing guitar effects and guitar amplifiers.

He left Moog Music in 1977, blaming corporate politics for his departure.

Moog and his family moved from New York State to western North Carolina in 1978. There he founded Big Briar, Inc. for the purpose of designing and building novel electronic music equipment, especially new types of performance control devices. At the International Computer Music Conference in 1982, he introduced the multiple-touch-sensitive keyboard, developed with John Eaton of Indiana University. In addition to responding to the downward motion of a key, the keyboard also sensed the horizontal position of the finger playing it.

From 1984 to 1988, Moog was a full-time consultant and Vice President of New Product Research for Kurzweil Music Systems.

Moog’s awards include the Silver Medal of the Audio Engineering Society; the Trustee’s Award of the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences; the Billboard Magazine Trendsetter’s Award; and the SEAMUS award from the Society of Electroacoustic Music in the United States.

Moog died in 2005 at the age of 71, after being diagnosed with a brain tumour four months previously. However, the Moog sound has lived on, with musicians such as Fat Boy Slim choosing to continue to use it even in the digital era.

As in

http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/moog.html

http://www.theverge.com/2012/5/22/3036882/robert-moog-google-doodle

http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2012/may/23/robert-moog-celebrated-in-google-doodle?newsfeed=true

 

 

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NIKOLA TESLA – THE GENIUS WHO LIT THE WORLD

Tesla with one of his famous “wireless” lamps. Published on the cover of the Electrical Experimenter in 1919.


NIKOLA TESLA – THE GENIUS WHO LIT THE WORLD

Few inventors contributed more to advances in science and engineering in the early 20th century than Nikola Tesla. As one of the Fathers of Electricity, Tesla did groundbreaking work on alternating current (AC) power system, electromagnetism, hydroelectric power, radio, and radar to name a few. Many of his inventions (Tesla obtained some 300 patents in his lifetime) became the stuff we take for granted today: when we flip a switch to turn on the light, we owe a lot of that electrical magic to Tesla.

As fate would have it, Tesla, one of the world’s greatest inventors, died penniless and in obscurity. Even today, many people mistakenly attribute many of his inventions to others (Edison, for example, is in the name of many power companies in the United States – ironically, they use the AC system devised by Tesla rather than the more inefficient direct current or DC system espoused by Thomas Edison; Tesla also invented the fundamentals of radio transmissions before Gugliegmo Marconi).

Today, there’s quite a bit of resurgence in Tesla’s popularity, which is helped in part by his mystique as a “mad scientist.” Amongst his more outlandish ideas, Tesla worked on death rays to knock out enemy airplanes out of the skies, pocket-sized resonance machine that could topple buildings, ways to send electricity through the upper atmosphere, force-fields to protect cities, and so on.


Tesla Company letterhead. Note the words “World Wireless Telephone Transmitter.”

In their book, Tesla: Master of Lightning, authors Margaret Cheney and Robert Uth tell the story of the enigmatic genius from his birth in a little village in what is Croatia today, to his lonely death in a New York hotel room. The book, years in the making, combines archival documents and hundreds of photographs, compiled from the Tesla Museum in Belgrade (previously inaccessible to Western writers during much of the Cold War era), excerpts from Tesla’s writings, as well as interviews with people who knew the man personally, to paint detailed snapshots of Tesla’s life and to provide clear explanations of his (often very technical) work.

On a personal note, it has taken me far longer than I expected to write this excerpt for Neatorama Spotlight. Margaret and Robert’s book was so fascinating that on many nights, I ended up reading late pass my bedtime. It seems like on every single page there were neat details about Tesla that were just too good not to share! I highly recommend Tesla: Master of Lightning to anyone interested in learning more about the legendary Nikola Tesla.

Excerpts from Tesla: Master of Lightning, by Margaret Cheney and Robert Uth: 

An Old World Childhood

As a youth, Tesla exhibited a peculiar trait that he considered the basis
of all his invention. He had an abnormal ability, usually involuntary,
to visualize scenes, people, and things so vividly that he was sometimes
unsure of what was real and what imaginary. Strong flashes of light often
accompanied these images. Tormented, he would move his hand in front of
his eyes to determine whether the objects were simply in his mind or outside.
He considered the strange ability an affliction at first, but for an inventor
it could be a gift.

Tesla wrote of these phenomena and of his efforts to find an explanation
for them, since no psychologist or physiologist was ever able to help
him. “The theory I have formulated,” he wrote much later, is
that the images were the result of a reflex action from the brain on the
retina under great excitation. They certainly were not hallucinations,
for in other respects I was normal and composed. To give an idea of my
distress, suppose that I had witnessed a funeral or some such nerve-wracking
spectacle. Then, inevitably, in the stillness of the night, a vivid picture
of the scene would thrust itself before my eyes and persist despite all
my efforts to banish it. Sometimes it would even remain fixed in space
though I pushed my hand through it. (Tesla, My inventions: My early life.
Electrical Experimenter; February 1919)

Tesla in his Houston Street laboratory. Caption for this photo in Electrical
Review, March 29, 1899 reads: “The operator’s body, in this
experiment, is charged to a high potential by means of a coil responsive
to the waves transmitted to it from a distant oscillator.”

Geniuses Collide

On the summer day in 1884 when Tesla, carefully dressed in his bowler
hat, striped trousers, and cut-away coat (the whole of his wardrobe),
dropped in to see the famous Mr. Edison, there had been an emergency at
the Vanderbilt mansion on Fifth Avenue. Two wires had shorted behind a
metallic-threaded wall hanging and started a fire. Mrs. Vanderbilt herself
had smothered the flames, only to learn that the problem emanated from
a steam engine and boiler in her basement. Now the angry socialite was
demanding that Edison remove the whole apparatus. No sooner had he rushed
back to Pearl Street than the manager of a shipping firm called to remind
him that the SS Oregon had been tied up for days awaiting electrical
repairs and was losing money by the hour. Unfortunately Edison had no
more engineers to assign to the job.

At this juncture he became aware of the tall foreign gentleman hovering
politely in the doorway, bowler hat in gloved hand, a letter in his pocket
from Charles Batchelor, the English engineer who managed the Continental
Edison Company in Europe. Few American colleges then trained electrical
engineers, so prospects were good for the rare immigrant who was qualified.
But Mr. Edison was not in a congenial mood.

Tesla spoke up, knowing the famous man had a had a hearing problem, and
introduced himself. He produced the brief message from Batchelor. Edison
glanced at the few lines and snorted. “I know two great men and you
are one of them,” Batchelor had written. “The other is this
young man!”

Thomas Edison, rumpled, weary, and deeply skeptical, asked Tesla what
he could do. While the American inventor was only eight years older than
his visitor, and lacked his formal education, he was already world-renowned
for his inventions. Tesla recalled their meeting:

When I saw this wonderful man, who had had no training at all, no advantages,
and who did it all himself, and saw the great results by virtue of his
industry and application – you see, I had studied a dozen languages
… and had spent the best years of my life ruminating through libraries.
I thought to myself what a terrible thing it was to have wasted my life
on those useless things, and if I had only come to America right then
and there and devoted all of my brain power and inventiveness to my
work, what could I not have done? (Tesla, My inventions: My early life.
Electrical Experimenter; February 1919)

In awe of Edison, Tesla proceeded to describe the engineering work he
had done in France and Germany, and spoke of his plans for induction motors
made to run smoothly and powerfully on alternating current. That invention,
he reckoned, was worth many fortunes.

Edison knew little of alternating current, chose to believe it the work
of the devil, and did not care to learn more about it. Did this dandified
“Parisian” realize that was he was suggesting could make a whole
industry obsolete? In the past Edison had waged a propaganda war against
the gas companies on the grounds that the possibility of explosions made
gas too dangerous for human use as a power source. He was therefore experienced
in recognizing and heading off any threat of industrial competition.

Tesla, unprepared for the force of Edison’s passion, thanked him and
turned to leave. As he did so a breathless boy rushed into the plant to
report that a junction box at Pearl and Nassau streets was leaking electricity
and had injured a carter and his horse. Edison bellowed at his foreman.
Then he turned to Tesla and said, “Hold up a minute, Mister. Can
you fix a ship’s lighting plant?”

So began this historic collision of geniuses. Eventually it would spark
the bitter and long-running “War of the Currents,” the taste
of which still lingers today in corporate memories.

Laboratory where TEsla and Westinghouse engineers developed apparatus
for AC systems.

The Executioner’s Current

It is strange but true that the introduction of the electric chair in
America came purely out of a commercial battle over light bulb sales.
Or, more accurately, over what kind of power supply would energize the
nation’s early lighting. Orders to Edison’s lighting companies had fallen
behind those for Westinghouse’s newer AC systems. With progress marching
right past him, Edison and his Wall Street investors opened a delaying
campaign to block AC systems in any way possible, the DC interests took
up the idea that AC would fail if it was perceived as deadly. One shadowy
figure associated with Edison, Harold P. Brown, became a very public advocate
of “humane” death – to be inflicted on animals or humans – by
AC electricity. Brown electrocuted dogs and horses under questionable
experimental conditions. After Edison provided him with research facilities
at his West Orange, New Jersey, laboratory, neighbors began to complain
of disappearing household pets.

Brown’s efforts inspired New York State prison officials to try the idea
on a human being. A law was passed in New York (1887) to abandon hanging
in favor of electrocution as of January 1, 1889.

Brown, predictably, had a hand in providing apparatus to the state -
a 2,000-volt Westinghouse alternator purchased secondhand – since Westinghouse
refused to sell when approached. First to die by the newly prescribed
capital punishment was William Kemmler, convicted of killing his wife.
He was executed at the Auburn Prison, August 6, 1890. Several jolts were
delivered, one for seventeen seconds and another for three and a half
minutes. Witnesses reported that the victim’s spinal cord burst into flames.
The method hasn’t worked very predictably, even up to today.

A number of terms were suggested for this new method of execution, including
“thanelectrize,” “electrophon,” “electroctasy,”
“electrotony,” and “fulmenvoltacuss.” And why “electrocute,”
also on the list, should have come to be preferred over the straightforward
“electrocize” is anyone’s guess. The vested interest in DC current,
however, made a point of saying victims of electric shocks had been “Westinghoused.”

Tesla in a thoughtful pose in front of his “web” coil, May 1896.

Lionized and Ionized

 

(L) Mark Twain and Joseph (“Jo”) Jefferson in Tesla’s South
Fifth Avenue laboratory, 1894, with blurred image of TEsla between.

(R) Mark Twain in Tesla’s laboratory at 35 South Fifth Avenue, early 1895

Perhaps Tesla’s most famous friend was the writer Mark Twain, with whom
the Serb’s literary connections went back to childhood. In his autobiography,
Tesla described how Twain helped him recover from a dangerous illness
when he was brought the early novels from his local public library and
found them “so captivating as to make me utterly forget my hopeless
state.” He attributed the miraculous recovery that followed to the
humorist. Tesla claims that twenty-five years later, when he met Twain
in New York, he told him the touching story “and was amazed to see
that great man of laughter burst into tears” (Tesla, My inventions:
My later endeavors. Electrical Experimenter; 1919)

In Mark Twain’s Notebooks & Journals, the author mentions
reading about the sale to Westinghouse of Tesla’s electrical patents,
“which will revolutionize the whole electric business of the world.”
Twain had made a bad investment – one of many – in the development of
a new DC motor, and was drawn to Tesla for answers. The answer was that
this motor had been rendered obsolete by Tesla’s polyphase AC. Because
this appears to have been the occasion for their first meeting, Twain’s
tears may have had a more pecuniary cause.

On that basis, the two men became lifelong friends and, incidentally,
fellow members of the posh Players Club. Twain later was instrumental
in encouraging Tesla to pursue his futuristic weapons for shifting war’s
destructiveness from men to machines, it then being innocently thought
that wars would cease when weapons became too horrible to contemplate.

Mark Twain was one of the friends most often invited to Tesla’s laboratory
for the improvisational shows of fright and delight. On one particular
evening Twain himself inadvertently furnished the entertainment when he
insisted upon experiencing the gyrations of a platform mounted on an electrical
oscillator. Tesla pretended to dissuade him, which of course made Twain
all the more desirous of prolonging the test. Once on the machine he kept
saying, “More, Tesla, more!” But soon he was crying for help,
since an undesired effect of the oscillations on the human body was to
create a turmoil in the bowels.

When he was next invited to the laboratory, a wiser Twain wrote: “Friday,
Midnight. Dear Mr. Tesla: I am desperately sorry, but a matter of unavoidable
business has intruded itself and bars me from coming down … I am very,
very sorry. Do forgive me.” (Twain n.d.).

Colorado Springs

 

This publicity photo taken at Colorado Springs was a double exposure.
Tesla poses with his “magnifying transmitter” capable of producing

millions of volts of electricity. The discharge here is twenty-two feet
in length.

In a patent filed the previous year, “System of Transmission of
Electrical Energy” (number 645,576), [Tesla] claimed “it has
become possible to transmit through even moderately rarefied strata of
atmosphere electrical energy to practically any amount and to any distance.”
[...] A friend and patent lawyer, Leonard E. Curtis, on being advised
of Tesla’s scheme, offered to find land and provide power for his research
from the El Paso Power Company of Colorado Springs [...]

The laboratory that began to rise from the prairie floor was both wired
and weird, a contraption with a roof that rolled back to prevent it from
catching fire, and a wooden tower that soared up to eighty feet. Above
it was a 142-foot metal mast supporting a large copper ball. Inside the
strange wooden structure, technicians began to assemble an enormous Tesla
coil. The frame on which the heavy primary and 17-turn secondary coils
were wound had a diameter of fifty-one feet. The third coil within it
was eight feet in diameter, with a hundred turns of wire. This enormous
air-core transformer could deliver a current of 1,100 amperes. The mysterious
“extra coil” in the center magnified the electrical effects
through a process called “resonant rise.” The function of this
coil was not understood until the 1970s.

Builders erected a high fence around the site, and signs appeared on
every post – KEEP OUT. GREAT DANGER – in hopes of keeping the curious
at a distance. Fritz Löwenstein could not resist posting at the door
another sign, quoting Dante’s Inferno: “Abandon hope, all
ye who enter here.” [...]

Caption in Century Magazine, June 1900, reads: “The photograph
shows three ordinary incandescent lamps lighted to full candle-power by
currents induced in a local loop consisting of a single wire forming a
square of fifty feet each side, which includes the lamps, and which is
at a distance of one hundred feet from the primary circuit energized by
the oscillator.”

To test his theory, Tesla had to become the first man to make electrical
effects on the scale of lightning. The giant transmitter was arranged
accordingly. On the evening of the experiment, he dressed for the occasion
in a Prince Albert coat, white gloves, and a derby hat. To avoid electrocution,
he took the precaution of wearing shoes with four-inch cork soles. One
of his assistants described him as looking like a “gaunt Mephistopheles.”

Each item of equipment, every wire and connection, had been carefully
checked. Tesla instructed his mechanic, Czito, to open the switch for
only one second. The secondary coil began to sparkle and crack and an
eerie blue corona formed in the air around it. Satisfied with the result,
he ordered Czito to close the switch until told to cease. Huge arcs of
blue electricity snaked up and down the center coil. Exploding discharges
could be heard outside (Cheney, Margaret. 1981. Tesla: Man Out of Time.
New York: Prentice-Hall. Reprint, 1991. New York: Barnes & Noble Books)

Bolts of man-made lightning more than a hundred feet in length shot out
from the mast atop the station. The commotion could be heard in the mining
town of Cripple Creek, fifteen miles away. Tesla thrilled to the sight
of great rods of flame. Then suddenly the lightning stopped. The experimental
station went black. He shouted to Czito to turn the power on again, but
nothing happened. His experiment had burned out the dynamo at the El Paso
Electric Company. Not only Tesla, but the entire city had lost power.
The power station manager was livid and the local population began to
have second thoughts about the famous inventor. But a week after the blackout,
both Tesla and the power station were back in business. However, Tesla
received no more free power.

A Weapon to End War

 

(L) Postcard illustration of the Hotel New Yorker, New York City. (Collection
of The New-York Historical Society)

(R) Tesla announced his new beam weapon in numerous newspaper interviews
on his seventy-eighth birthday.

This article is from The New York Times, July 11, 1934.

In 1934 Tesla moved to his final residence, room 3327 (still divisible
by three) of the recently completed Hotel New Yorker. There he lived alone
with his ideas and his pigeons for the next decade. He posted a typewritten
note on the door: “Please Do Not Disturb The Occupant Of This Room.”
In Tesla’s mind, it was time to reveal his greatest invention: a perfect
and impossible idea, a weapon to prevent World War II.

On July 11, 1934, the headline on the front page of the New York
Times screamed, “TESLA AT 78 BARES NEW DEATH-BEAM.” The
invention, the article reported,

will send concentrated beams of particles through the free air, of
such tremendous energy that they will bring down a fleet of 10,000 enemy
airplanes at a distance of 250 miles from a defending nation’s border
and will cause armies of millions to drop dead in their tracks.

When put in operation, Dr. Tesla said, this latest invention of his
would make war impossible. This death-beam, he asserted would surround
each country like an invisible Chinese wall, only a million times more
impenetrable. It would make every nation impregnable against attack
by airplanes or by large invading armies. [...]

Joseph Butler, a U.S. Air Force expert on beam weapons, has said of Tesla’s
idea, “Definitely, he had the concept of a charged particle beam
weapon back in the 1930s. The concept was right on the mark … particles
projected out long distances to do damage to some enemy airplanes, in
his particular case.” But Butler added, “I haven’t a clue how
he meant to actually do it” (interview with the authors, 1998).

Tesla’s system of transmission of power to aircraft by radio. Illustrated
by Frank Paul for Radio News, December 1925.

Enigmatic to the End

Tesla’s friend Kenneth Swezey also visited and was equally alarmed by
his condition, particularly when he saw that Tesla was subsisting on warm
milk and Nabisco crackers. He noted that the empty enameled cracker cans
were stacked on shelves and used to hold various things. Word began to
spread that the great inventor was near death.

Late in December of 1942, with the war at its height, two young men identifying
themselves as U.S. government agents suddenly entered Tesla’s life. One
was a member of the OSS (predecessor to the CIA) named Ralph Bergstresser.
The other, Bloyce Fitzgerald, was an expert on ballistics technology working
with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. According to Bergstresser,
Tesla agreed to share his most sensitive documents with them and allowed
them to carry stacks of material away for microfilming. Based on their
review, the two men were able to arrange a meeting at the White House
on January 8, 1943, with Roosevelt’s science advisor and other high-ranking
officials. Tesla was too ill to attend (interview with the authors, 1993).

Meanwhile a prominent Yugoslav writer, Louis Adamic (The Immigrant’s
Return), wrote a letter to Eleanor Roosevelt on December 29 describing
the inventor’s circumstances:

Today he is … worse than penniless. He is extremely frail, weighing
less than 90 pounds. His health is poor; he has grown somewhat bitter
against his country, the United States … He suffers, too, to the point
of bitterness, because he feels that everyone in America, including
beneficiaries of fortunes created by his inventions, has forgotten him.
… The fact now is that he is up against it … This letter is not
an appeal to help him financially. … This is merely to suggest that
the President write him a letter which will indicate that America has
not forgotten [him]. Perhaps this coming New Year is a good occasion
for such a letter (Adamic 1942).

New Year’s Eve came and went, and there was no letter. Tesla’s loyal
associate, George Scherff, visited him on January 4 to help him prepare
for an experiment. The final project, its nature unknown, was terminated
when Tesla complained of sharp pains in his chest. He refused medical
aid. Scherff left the hotel, bidding him goodbye for the last time.

On the night of January 7, 1943, the eve of the Orthodox Christmas, snow
fell on New York City. In a darkened room on the thirty-third floor of
the Hotel New Yorker, Tesla lay listening to the clamor of traffic below.
His great legacy, the technological world he had helped create, would
continue without him. There would be no more riveting announcements, or
shrieks of “Eureka,” or terrifying bolts of lightning leaping
in his laboratory. The pigeons on the window ledge stirred their feet
and ruffled their feathers. Hard times lay ahead for the pigeons; he had
nothing to leave them.

Nikola Tesla, aged eighty-six, died in his sleep. The coroner’s report
read: “No suspicious circumstances.”

The Cosmic Signature

 

Nikola Tesla monument installed at Goat Island, Niagara Falls, a gift
to the United States on the occasion of its bicentennial and Tesla’s 120th
anniversary, July 23, 1976. The monument is a second casting of the sculpture
by Fran Krsinic.

The first casting is installed in front of the Faculty of Electrical Engineering
Building, University of Belgrade.

The world would be a very different place without the ideas and inventions
of Nikola Tesla. With the flick of a switch the power of the waterfall
and the coal furnace is transported to our fingertips. Worldwide communication
reach nearly every person on the planet. A remote-controlled device has
explored the surface of Mars. And at this moment, receivers are pointed
at the heavens waiting for a message from afar. One can picture the inventor
nodding, then shrugging, and perhaps wondering what took us so long. In
the end, Tesla was one of our greatest dreamers, and great dreams have
a way of becoming reality. The inventor consoled himself by saying, “The
scientific man does not aim at an immediate result. He does not expect
that his advanced ideas will be readily taken up. His work is like that
of a planter – for the future. His duty is to lay the foundation for those
who are to come, and point the way. (Tesla, My inventions: My early life.
Electrical Experimenter; February 1919)

_____

The article above is an excerpt of Tesla: Master of Lightning
by Margaret Cheney and Robert Uth. It is reproduced here with permission.
There are many parts of Tesla’s life that we didn’t talk about – for example,
the details about the War of Currents, his contributions to the Niagara
Falls hydroelectric power station, his mysterious work at the Wardenclyffe
Tower – that are illustrated in great details in the book.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

MARGARET CHENEY is the author
of three previous books, including the classic biography Tesla: Man Out of Time for which she received the first International
Tesla Award. A former Associated Press editor, she is currently a member
of the executive board of the Tesla Memorial Society. She resides in California.

ROBERT UTH is a documentary
film producer and writer. With his wife, Simonida, he has spent years
researching the life of Nikola Tesla. This research is also reflected
in his documentary Tesla: Master of Lightning.



As in

http://www.neatorama.com/spotlight/2010/03/04/tesla-master-of-lightning/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla

http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/mediacenter/publications/flux/vol1issue1/documents/magnetmilestones.pdf

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Hans Bethe: Prophet of Energy

Hans Bethe

Hans Albrecht Bethe was born in Strasbourg, Alsace-Lorraine, on July 2 1906. He attended the Gymnasium in Frankfurt from 1915 to 1924. He then studied at the University of Frankfurt for two years, and at Munich for two and one half years, taking his Ph. D. in theoretical physics with Professor Arnold Sommerfeld in July 1928.

He then was an Instructor in physics at Frankfurt and at Stuttgart for one semester each. From fall 1929 to fall 1933 his headquarters were the University of Munich where he became Privatdozent in May 1930. During this time he had a travel fellowship of the International Education Board to go to Cambridge, England, in the fall of 1930, and to Rome in the spring terms of 1931 and 1932. In the winter semester of 1932-1933,he held a position as Acting Assistant Professor at the University of Tubingen which he lost due to the advent of the Nazi regime in Germany.

Bethe emigrated to England in October 1933 where he held a temporary position as Lecturer at the University of Manchester for the year 1933-1934, and a fellowship at the University of Bristol in the fall of 1934. In February 1935 he was appointed Assistant Professor at Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. U.S.A., then promoted to Professor in the summer of 1937. He has stayed there ever since, except for sabbatical leaves and for an absence during World War II. His war work took him first to the Radiation Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, working on microwave radar, and then to the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory which was engaged in assembling the first atomic bomb. He returned to Los Alamos for half a year in 1952. Two of his sabbatical leaves were spent at Columbia University, one at the University of Cambridge, and one at CERN and Copenhagen.

Bethe’s main work is concerned with the theory of atomic nuclei. Together with Peierls, he developed a theory of the deuteron in 1934 which he extended in 1949. He resolved some contradictions in the nuclear mass scale in 1935. He studied the theory of nuclear reactions in 1935-1938, predicting many reaction cross sections. In connection with this work, he developed Bohr’s theory of the compound nucleus in a more quantitative fashion. This work and also the existing knowledge on nuclear theory and experimental results, was summarized in three articles in the Reviews of Modern Physics which for many years served as a textbook for nuclear physicists.

His work on nuclear reactions led Bethe to the discovery of the reactions which supply the energy in the stars. The most important nuclear reaction in the brilliant stars is the carbon-nitrogen cycle, while the sun and fainter stars use mostly the proton-proton reaction. Bethe’s main achievement in this connection was the exclusion of other possible nuclear reactions. The Nobel Prize was given for this work, as well as his work on nuclear reactions in general.

In 1955 Bethe returned to the theory of nuclei, emphasizing a different phase. He has worked since then on the theory of nuclear matter whose aim it is to explain the properties of atomic nuclei in terms of the forces acting between nucleons.

Before his work on nuclear physics, Bethe’s main attention was given to atomic physics and collision theory. On the former subject, he wrote a review article inHandbuch der Physik in which he filled in the gaps of the existing knowledge, and which is still up-to-date. In collision theory, he developed a simple and powerful theory of inelastic collisions between fast particles and atoms which he has used to determine the stopping power of matter for fast charged particles, thus providing a tool to nuclear physicists. Turning to more energetic collisions, he calculated with Heitler the bremsstrahlung emitted by relativistic electrons, and the production of electron pairs by high energy gamma rays.

Bethe also did some work on solid-state theory. He discussed the splitting of atomic energy levels when an atom is inserted into a crystal, he did some work on the theory of metals, and especially he developed a theory of the order and disorder in alloys.

In 1947, Bethe was the first to explain the Lamb-shift in the hydrogen spectrum, and he thus laid the foundation for the modern development of quantum electrodynamics. Later on, he worked with a large number of collaborators on the scattering of pi mesons and on their production by electromagnetic radiation.

Bethe is married to the daughter of P.P. Ewald, the well-known X-ray physicist. They have two children, Henry and Monica.

From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1963-1970, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1972

This autobiography/biography was written at the time of the award and first published in the book series Les Prix Nobel. It was later edited and republished inNobel Lectures. To cite this document, always state the source as shown above.

 

Hans Bethe died on March 6, 2005.

 

Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1967

 

Hans Bethe

Hans Bethe’s arrival at Cornell University as a refugee from Nazi Germany, at age 28 in 1935, launched the Department of Physics into the top rank. It was at Cornell, before World War II, that Bethe published his famous reviews of nuclear physics, and conducted his groundbreaking work on the theory of energy production in stars for which he won the Nobel Prize in 1967.

During the war, Bethe was a key figure on the Manhattan Project as head of the theoretical physics division. After the war, he brought some of the most outstanding young physicists from Los Alamos to Cornell, in particular, Richard Feynman and Robert Wilson. Under their leadership, Cornell moved into what is now called high energy elementary particle physics, a field in which Cornell remains on the cutting edge. That Hans Bethe has devoted virtually his whole career to Cornell has been of inestimable value to the Department and to the University.

Hans Bethe was born in 1906 in Strasbourg, Germany. He attended the University of Munich, studying with Arnold Sommerfeld, and after receiving his degree in 1928, taught at Frankfurt, Stuttgart and Munich. In 1930 and 1931, he received fellowships first to Cambridge and then to Rome where he worked with Enrico Fermi.

Bethe’s career spans the evolution of nuclear physics as we know it today. He has made contributions to almost all phases of the exploration of nuclear interactions and nuclear forces, but his scientific accomplishments go far beyond this. He produced the first major paper on the theory of order-disorder transitions in alloys, and his 1947 calculation of the Lamb shift paved the way for the revolution in quantum electrodynamics.

In the decade following World War II, Bethe and Feynman and their students played a central role in developing quantum electrodynamics, work for which Feynman shared the Nobel Prize. From 1945, until his retirement from the Cornell faculty in 1975, Bethe trained and inspired a large number of graduate students. Many have gone on to become internationally known scientists, among them Freeman Dyson. Bethe and his co-workers published important work across the whole spectrum of physics. Even today, in his nineties, his unique mastery of such diverse subjects as thermonuclear processes, shock waves and neutrino reactions have kept Bethe at the forefront of research in astrophysics.

Bethe’s impact transcends the Cornell Physics Department. The distinction of astronomy at Cornell owes much to Bethe’s inspiration and initiatives. He has been an advisor to several United States presidents on national security policy and, since World War II, has played a leading role in the public debate about nuclear weapons, defense policy and nuclear power. He was one of the founders of the Federation of Atomic Scientists and was a member of the original Board of Directors of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.

In his public role, Bethe’s position has been that of a responsible scientist and a man of conscience eager to contribute his special knowledge to the public discussion of the great issues of our time. Hans Bethe is a remarkable combination of a truly great scientist who has also made major contributions in the public service of his nation.
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Three Lectures by Hans BetheIN 1999, legendary theoretical physicist Hans Bethe delivered three lectures on quantum theory to his neighbors at the Kendal of Ithaca retirement community (near Cornell University). Given by Professor Bethe at age 93, the lectures are presented here as QuickTime videos synchronized with slides of his talking points and archival material.

Intended for an audience of Professor Bethe’s neighbors at Kendal, the lectures hold appeal for experts and non-experts alike. The presentation makes use of limited mathematics while focusing on the personal and historical perspectives of one of the principal architects of quantum theory whose career in physics spans 75 years.

A video introduction and appreciation are provided by Professor Silvan S. Schweber, the physicist and science historian who is Professor Bethe’s biographer, and Edwin E. Salpeter, the J. G. White Distinguished Professor of Physical Science Emeritus at Cornell, who was a post-doctoral student of Professor Bethe.

About Hans Bethe
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Hans Bethe’s publications span over 75 years and an incredible array of topics in physics, astrophysics, nuclear energy, arms control, and science policy. This page offers just a few starting points for those interested in learning about Professor Bethe and his profound influence as one of the great scientists of the twentieth century. Readers interested in learning more about quantum theory will readily find technical and popular references in libraries, bookstores, and online.

Web Pages

Nobel Prize biography, 1967
Includes the presentation speech and other resources

“Hans Bethe Celebrates 60 Years at Cornell,” 1995
Several articles by Cornell University News Service

“A Tribute to Hans Albrecht Bethe,” 1995
Originally published by Cornell Magazine

“Writing the Biography of a Living Scientist: Hans Bethe,” 1995
Paper given by Silvan Schweber at the Pauling Symposium

Bruce Medalist page and bibliography, 2001
Awarded for lifetime contributions to astronomy

Videos

“I Can Do That: Hans Bethe’s First 60 Years at Cornell,” 1995
Produced at Cornell University, available online. (After clicking the link, scroll down to the bottom of the page. Click “View/Open” to launch the RealMedia video.)

“An Evening with Hans Bethe: the German Atomic Bomb Project,” 1993
Produced at Cornell University, available at Cornell Library

Books

Schweber, Silvan S., In the Shadow of the Bomb: Bethe, Oppenheimer, and the Moral Responsibility of the Scientist (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 2000).

Bernstein, Jeremy, Prophet of Energy: Hans Bethe (Basic Books, 1980; Elsevier-Dutton, NY, 1981).

Bethe, H.A., et. al., From a Life of Physics (World Scientific Publishing Co., Singapore, 1989).

Bethe, Hans A., The Road from Los Alamos, [Masters of Modern Physics series] (American Inst. of Physics, NY, 1991).

As in

bethe.cornell.edu/

http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1967/bethe-bio.html

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